Housing Adjustment Theory

Earl W. Morris & Mary Winter
(Morris, b. 1922) (Winter, b. 1940)
Source: www.threegfarms.com ; www.las.iastate.edu


Summary:
The theory of housing adjustment behavior is a framework for understanding the process by which households seek to maintain equilibrium, the causes of disequilibrium, and the consequences of existing in a state of disequilibrium. In this sense, equilibrium refers to a state in which the household’s current housing is in accordance with the norms of both society and the household itself, and it fits the needs of the household. Housing norms include space, tenure and structure type, quality, expenditure and neighborhood. When one or more of these norms is not met by the household’s current housing, the household experiences a housing deficit.


A deficit is a “condition or set of conditions that is subjectively defined as undesirable in comparison with a norm” (Morris & Winter, 1996, p. 22). For example, a typical space norm is the expectation that the dwelling will have enough rooms that opposite sex children will not have to share a bedroom once they reach a certain age. However, if a dwelling does not have enough rooms for this norm to be upheld, the household will experience a deficit. Deficits lead to feelings of dissatisfaction with one’s current housing, and chronic dissatisfaction may cause the household to engage in change behavior in the form of adjustment, adaptation, or regeneration. However, the household’s preferred change behavior is predicated on overcoming any constraints that impose on the household’s ability to remedy the situation. A household may experience constraint in one or more of the following areas: resources, predispositions, discrimination, market, or household organization. On the other hand, a deficit in one area, such as the bedroom example above may be offset by a positive deficit in another area, for example a really large backyard. Thus, the household will have to determine which deficit is more dissatisfactory to them and make their changes based on that decision.


The theory of housing adjustment has been well-validated through studies conducted over two decades. However, an important criticism to consider when discussing the use of theory is the risk of decelerating or narrowing the development of any field of research by adhering to one principal theory. As Elaine Pedersen (2007) has succinctly stated, “theory is everywhere,” yet not every theory used will be as prevalent or well-validated as Morris and Winter’s theory of housing adjustment. In fact, “there will be times when an initial theoretical context is important to a particular question or when the discovery of a new theoretical perspective is desired. When a new theoretical perspective is desired, the scholar will not define the research process by using a preexisting theory” (Pedersen, 2007, p.120). Thus, although the use of preexisting theories is undeniably important to the development of knowledge within a given field, so is the use of as-yet-unnamed theories.


Level of Analysis:
Primarily meso/household.

Methods:
Quantitative; may be used to inform qualitative studies.
Theoretical Model for the Housing Adjustment Theory
Morris & Winter (1996), p. 71.


Application:
The theory of housing adjustment has been used extensively to study housing satisfaction, housing preferences, residential mobility, and housing decisions. For example, Keller, Farr, Kirby, and Rusco (1997) referred to the Morris and Winter theory (1978) in their discussion regarding the role of housing norms, values, and cultural background in shaping housing satisfaction and housing preferences. Krofta, Morris, and Franklin (1994) used this theory to study housing decisions among older age cohorts, whereas Bruin & Cook (1997) looked at constraints and residential satisfaction among low-income, single-parent families.

References:
Bruin, M. & Cook, C. (1997). Understanding constraints and residential satisfaction among low-income single-parent families. Environment and Behavior, 29, 532-553.
“Earl W. Morris & Mary Winter” [Photograph]. Retrieved May 7, 2009 from Welcome to 3G Farms,
Keller, T.C., Farr, C.A., Kirby, S.D., & Risco, J. (1997). Housing and its influence on life and job satisfaction among clergy. Housing and Society, 24, 15-34.
Krofta,, J., Morris, E.W., & Franklin, E. (1994). Housing, health and the needs for help in older households: Differences among age cohorts. Housing and Society, 21, 76-89.
Morris, E.W. & Winter, M. (1975). A theory of family housing adjustment. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 37, 79-88.
Morris, E.W. & Winter, M. (1978). Housing, family, and society. New York: Wiley.
Morris, E.W. & Winter, M. (1994). Housing, family, and society (Rev. Ed.). Ames, IA: Morris & Winter.
Morris, E.W. & Winter, M. (1996). Housing, family, and society (Rev. Ed.). Ames, IA: Morris & Winter.
Pedersen, E. (2007). Theory is everywhere: A discourse on theory. Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, 25(1),106-128.

Steggell, C.D., Binder, S.K., Davidson, L.A., Vega, P.R., Hutton, E.D., & Rodecap, A.R. (2001). Exploring theories of human behavior in housing research. Housing and Society, 28(1/2), 3-32.

Environmental Press Theory

M. Powell Lawton
(b. 1923- d. 2001)
Source: http://www.proqolid.org/proqolid/instruments/philadelphia_geriatric_center_morale_scale_pgc_morale_scale?private=yes&fromSearch=


Summary:
Over the past century, emphases on person and environment aspect of human behavior have been developed by social scientists. Among them, the psychologist Kurt Lewin developed the “ecological equation” which is B= f (P, E). That is, behavior is a a function of the person and environment. Based on the ecological equation, Lawton and Nahemow (1973) found that a graphic schema is convenient to illustrate relationship between person and environment (see Fig. 1).


In the model, “competence” is ability within a person such as physical or mental health, intellectual capacity or ego strength. The range of competency is from low to high. Poor physical health, age-related sensory losses, mental health problem and so on result in lowered competency. “Environmental Press” is a limiting aspect of environment and leads to a behavior-activating response for some individuals. The strength of press is varied in positive, neutral or negative ways.


The shaded areas in Figure 1 are adaptation levels that are given by competence reacting to environmental press. This is obtained by everyday activities without awareness of the environment. However, it is possible that there are maladaptive behaviors or negative emotional states, if an individual is exposed to a high level of press. For example, if a woman is a wheelchair user, her competence is low so a kitchen designed for able-bodied people causes high pressure. To adapt her environment, she needs to modify her kitchen. If not, the environment leads her to maladaptation and the kitchen environment will change her behavioral patterns such as eating habits. To be more specific, she prefers to eat already cooked food such as donuts or hamburgers rather than food prepared by herself due to the environmental press of her kitchen.


If an individual is exposed to a low level of press, it causes a feeling of boredom, lassitude, deprivation, and a low demand to master the normal environment. Moreover, when someone is exposed to a low level of environmental press, their competence level will decrease. Thus, a limited level of press within any given adaptation level is required to maintain comparatively healthy status.




Application:
The elderly are more likely to have low competence for their environment so they need to increase their competence by adjusting the environment to adapt their level of competence according to Press-competence model. The characteristics of accommodating environment are the following. First, less severe environmental press is needed compared to the environment of original tenants. Second, mental and physical health starts to necessitate higher-intensity services; congregate meals, house-keeping services or on-site medical services might be needed. Last, spatial and structural demands increase for additional services such as wheelchair use or modification of bathroom.


As mentioned above, the Press-Competence Model can be applied to meet the needs of residents for their environment in both congregate housing and housing for independent living. To be more specific, congregate meals, house-keeping services or on-site medical services will be provide for residents with low competence level in congregate housing. In the aspects of housing for independent living, home modification will be offered to meet the needs of the elderly to age in place through reducing environmental press. According to Lawton (1082), the most common home modification examples to help the elderly age in place are the following: grab bars and shower seats (22.9%), wheelchair accessibility within the home (9%), railing (7.8%), and ramps at street level (5%). The majority of the elderly felt that home modifications mentioned above would help them to stay at home for a long time.


References:
Lawton, M. P. (1977). An ecological theory of aging applied to elderly housing. Environment and Aging, 31(1), 8-10.
Lawton, M. P. (1982). Competence, environmental press, and the adaptation of older people. In P.G. Windley & T.O. Byerts (Eds.), Aging and the Environment : Theoretical Approaches (pp.33- 59). New York: Springer.
Lawton, M.P. (1989). Three functions of the residential environment. Journal of Housing for the Elderly, 5 (1), 35-50.
Lawton, M.P. & Nehamow, L. (1973). An ecological theory of adaptive behavior and aging. In C. Eisdorfer & M.P. Lawton (Eds.), The Psychology of Adult Development and Aging (pp. 657-667). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.
Pynoos, J., Nishita, C. & Perelman, L. (2003). Advancements in the home modification field: A tribute to M. Powell Lawton. Journal of Housing for the Elderly, 17(1/2), 105-116.

Regnier, V. (2003). Powell Lawton’s contributions to purpose-built housing design for the elderly. Journal of Housing for the Elderly, 17(1/2), 39-53.