Robert D. Putnam
(b. 1941)
http://www.hks.harvard.edu/news-events/news/commentary/growing-class-gap (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Putnam).
Summary:
Social capital refers to social relationships or networks among people that enable them to obtain financial and other necessary resources. Beugelsdijk and Smulders (2003) stated that there is no one way to define social capital because many different fields of study have used it to describe social networks and how those networks can impact resources.
According to Putnam (2000), Hanifan, was one of the first to write about social capital in 1916. Hanifan used it to refer to community involvement in public school. Putnam himself became one of the best known leaders in the field of social capital research. He encouraged people to increase and develop their resources, or “social capital”. Putnam found that social capital could be increased through social interactions either with family members and close friends or informal social contacts in the community. Most researchers use social capital to refer to the relationship between two or more people that enables them to develop economic and other resources. Fukuyama felt that social capital encouraged interaction between people and was related to norms and ideals within cultures and families.
Bonding and bridging are two types of social capital. Bonding is one of the most important social networks that increase human and capital. Bonding refers to social ties between family members and close friends. Because of this, trust is one of the foundations of social capital and an important part of bonding. Trust is how people interact without having boundaries and restrictions on their behavior. Other critiques stated that bonding refers to exclusive or isolating relationships within different social groups and how they relate to those outside those groups.
Bridging is the second type of social capital. Bridging is a method of reducing expenses and helping people become more independent. It refers to the relationship between people who have never met before. Putnam defines bridging as “inclusive” and links it to seeking help outside one’s family and close friends to agencies within their community. Bridging is described as a weak form of social capital when compared to bonding. However, Putnam states that having both bonding and bridging together increases one’s ability to obtain resources.
Level of Analysis:
Social capital exists at the level of individual, family, group, and community.
Methods:
Mixed methods
Application:
The larger a person’s social capital, the more resources they will have and the better chance they will have of obtaining satisfactory housing. Social networks change with the need of the person. For people who have limited financial resources, social capital serves as a major way of accessing financial and other capital.
The concepts of bonding and bridging capital can be applied to cross-cultural studies of housing. For example, close family relationships are the most important type of social capital in Saudi Arabia. Bonding, or contacts within one’s own family, is the main type of social capital used to access housing. A newly married couple in this country who are seeking their first home will depend on the couple’s family contacts in order to find the right house as well as financial assistance. In western countries, on the other hand, bridging appears to be the main avenue for obtaining housing and financial resources. Homeowners and renters depend more on informal networks such as banks, real estate companies, and other community agencies as the main way to find help as well as funding for purchasing and renting housing.
It is important to have a sufficient amount of social capital through social networks in order to meet one’s financial and other needs. Usually an increase in one type of social capital results in a decrease in the other. The type of social capital a person uses will depend upon their cultural and family norms.
References:
Agnitsch, K., Flora, J., Ryan, V. (2006, March) Bonding and bridging social capital: The interactive effects on community action. Journal of the Community Development Society 37 (1), 1-16.
Putnam, R.D. (2000). Bowling Alone. The Collapse and Revival of American Community, New York: Simon and Schuster. (pp. 21-28)
Beugelsdijk, S., Smulders, S. (2003) Bridging and bonding social capital: Which type is good for economic growth? Retrieved March 13, 2009 from: http://www.eea-esem.com/papers/eea-esem/2003/119/EEA2003.pdf
Fukuyama, F. (1997, May) Social capital: The problem of measurement. Mediterranean Development Forum I. Voices from Marrakech: Towards Competitive and Caring Societies in the Middle East and North Africa, May 12-17, Marrakech, Morocco. Retrieved March 8, 2009 from: http://www.worldbank.org/mdf/mdf1/socicap.htm.
Salehi-Isfahani, D. & Dhillon, N. (2008, October). Stalled youth transitions in the Middle East: A framework for policy reform. Executive Summary. The Middle East Youth Initiative Working Paper, Number 8. Wolfensohn Center for Development. Dubai School of Government. Dubai, Saudi Arabia. Retrieved February 15, 2008 from: http://www.prio.no/upload/prio/file_Stalled_Transitions_final.pdf
Siisiainen, M. (2000, July 5-8) Two concepts of social capital: Bourdieu vs. Putnam. Department of Social Sciences and Philosophy. Paper presented at the ISTR Fourth International Conference, Dublin, Ireland.
My biggest question/concern with social capital is the implied "values" that are imbedded in using this theory. To elaborate a bit further, I feel that sometimes people when using the community capital framework tend to look for positive or negative elements of capital. People will look at a community program, for example, and describe how the program is doing and excellent job of bonding and bridging in a positive sense. However, I feel that community capital framework (especially social capital) over-simplifies situations. What I mean is that social capital really isn't helpful as a theory beyond the community level. Something, as such the fake community program I mentioned above, might appear to be positive at the broad community level. Yet, on a more specific level (such as the household or individual level), the same program might fail to make an impact or address important needs. Therefore, I feel it is important to consider the limitations of using the community capital framework.
ReplyDeleteThe points too ponder for me were, what do the terms bonding and bridging mean? How do these definitions explain housing? Researchers tend to think that bonding of "dense homogeneous networks and bridging of weaker, heterogeneous networks led to different outcomes" Agnitsch, Flora & Ryan, 2006, p. 39. In other words, bonding means that individuals networks more within their own group, and bridging means individuals network with others outside of their group. Consequently, researchers believe if individuals network or seek resources with the same group these individuals are limiting their social capital. This theory has been used to explain how low-income and communities of color do not have access to housing and/or employment because they do not go outside the group to seek social/human capital gains. This theory does not discuss how housing discrimination has led these marginalized groups to be concentrated in areas of poverty nor does it explain even if you have access to other groups outside of your network, it does not guarantee individuals will have different outcomes. In the U.S. housing and employment discrimination is embedded in the very fabric of our history, social capital theory is very limited in its approach to explain or predict outcomes for different communities that are not homogenous.
ReplyDeleteThe terms 'bonding' and 'bridging' seem to be too vague for the twenty-first century system of social networking. Bonding seems to be a clear and strong relationship. Bridging may have more nuances to it than are currently recognized in this theory. By acknowledging these differences, the theory may be able to connect more specific 'values' to each type of bridging. For example, when a natural disaster occurs somewhere in the work people have started using social networking to elicit financial support from individuals across the world. This is a type of bridging and the value is a monetary and possibly uplifting in a spiritual sense but not personal. The more often recognized bridging can assist an individual in finding a job as they move to a new city. This may require more specific knowledge exchanged between the individual and their contact. In the former example, an individual need only recognize the organization name to be able to connect and send aid. In the latter example, the individual may need to have a specific name and contact number for the bridging to be of value in helping them secure a job.
ReplyDeleteThere is no doubt in my mind that social capital exists and brings value to a community. But when the theory began in 1916, individuals only interacted in person, over the phone, or through letters. With current technology there are infinite ways to connect with people directly by emails or indirectly through blogs. When adding different methods of communication to the equation, I think it is fair to associate different levels of value as these connections become more or less direct bridging. It would be interesting to bring the studies of this theory into the social networking realm and it may aid certain communities in finding the appropriate media for their concerns or needs.
I think there is a tension between bonding and bridging that can merit a lot more investigation.
ReplyDeleteOn the one hand, there seems that there would be a limit in the time and resources people or communities can invest in creating social capital and that they would have to allocate one proportion to bonding and another to bridging and any increase in one would lead to a decrease in the other. Also, as it seems some social science research looks at the exclusion that comes along with creating strong communities and that stronger bonding may make effective bridging more difficult.
On the other hand, though, I think that if you have a community that has invested in bonding it can be less nervous about the possible disruptive impacts that increases in bridging may bring. A strongly bonded unit will be more confident in its aspects, strengths and position and would, it seems, be more resilient in the face of the challenges and questions that will accompany bridging behaviors.
In addition, the better bonded a community is, the more it knows what it has to offer and the better it can participate in bridging that will be mutually beneficial.
In that way, perhaps, investment in bonding today will make future bridging more fruitful for all involved.
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